Different type of Development
Different type of development (Unit-3)
Cognitive development: Piaget’s theory and its application
A significant addition to psychology has been made by Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which has helped us better understand how children’s minds grow through time. According to the hypothesis, there are four unique stages of cognitive development, each of which is distinguished by particular cognitive functions and skills. Children eventually develop more complex cognitive abilities and a greater grasp of their environment as they move through various phases. Let’s examine each stage and go into greater detail on how Piaget’s theory is used in real life:
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
Infants explore and interact with the world primarily through their senses (sensory experiences) and motor actions (motor experiences) throughout the sensorimotor stage (birth to two years). Through actions like clutching, mouthing, and staring, they gain knowledge about their surroundings. The development of object permanence, or the knowledge that objects persist even when they are hidden from view, is one of the major accomplishments of this era. Infants also start to construct simple cognitive representations and show early problem-solving abilities.
Practical Applications: – To enhance newborns’ cognitive development, carers and educators can expose them to a range of sensory stimuli, such as vibrant toys, different textures, and sounds.
– Infants’ cognitive development is aided by encouraging active play and exploration, which also helps them understand cause-and-effect relationships.
– Playing hide-and-seek and peek-a-boo can help children develop their sense of object permanence.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):
Children start to use symbols, such as language and pretend play, to depict things and events as they reach the preoperational stage. Their thinking develops greater intuitiveness, but it is also constrained in other ways. Children who fail to understand other people’s perspectives often exhibit egocentrism, which makes it difficult for them to communicate and comprehend other people’s points of view. They might also show animism, which is the belief that inanimate items have lifelike characteristics. They tend to concentrate on one component of a problem and neglect others because their thinking is constrained by centration. Additionally, youngsters at this age do not grasp conservation, which is the idea that quantity does not change.
Practical Applications:
– Parents and educators can encourage children’s creative play, storytelling, and language development through artistic endeavours.
– Adults can combat egocentrism by breaking down difficult ideas into simple terms and promoting perspective-taking with visual aids.
– Children can learn about conservation and overcome centration with the aid of games and tasks related to it.
- Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children’s thinking becomes more structured, methodical, and adaptable throughout this stage. They exhibit the capacity to carry out mental operations on actual, tangible things. Children learn the notion of conservation, realising that despite changes in shape or arrangement, the amount of a substance remains the same. They can also understand the idea of reversibility and how actions can be undone. Another cognitive ability that develops during this stage is the ability to classify items into hierarchies according to various criteria.
Practical Applications:
– Educational activities may involve organising things according to size, shape, or colour, or performing other problem-solving exercises that call for concrete operational thinking.
– Experiments and hands-on learning opportunities can be used to emphasise the ideas of conservation and reversibility.
– Children’s skills in hierarchical categorization are cultivated when they are given classification tasks to complete, such as categorising items.
- Formal Operational period (11 years and older): Adolescents and adults reach their peak level of cognitive development during this period. They are capable of reasoning logically about hypothetical and abstract notions as well as taking into account many variables when addressing problems. They are capable of seeing alternatives, reasoning logically and scientifically, and creating and systematically testing hypotheses.
Practical Applications: – Educators can create curricula and learning experiences that test teenagers’ capacity for abstract thought while promoting critical analysis of complicated problems.
– Experiments and hands-on learning can be used to further the understanding of conservation and reversibility.
– Assisting kids with classification activities, such as classifying things into different groups, helps them develop their hierarchical classification
– To encourage formal operational thinking, problem-solving exercises can include speculative scenarios and open-ended inquiries.
– Involving teenagers in conversations, debates, and philosophical inquiries might help them develop their reasoning skills and assist their cognitive development.
In conclusion, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers insightful understanding of the cognitive mechanisms underlying human learning and thought from infancy through adolescence. Understanding the stages of cognitive development can help educators, parents, and other carers design learning experiences that are developmentally appropriate and encourage children’s cognitive development. Piaget’s theory can be used to create interventions for kids with learning disabilities as well as educational programmes and curriculum. By taking into account an individual’s cognitive talents at various stages, we may successfully enhance their educational opportunities and encourage their intellectual development.
Freud’s theory
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) founded psychoanalysis, a ground-breaking method of comprehending the human mind and behaviour. Freud’s theory is intricate and has had a significant influence on psychology and psychotherapy. The idea of psychosexual development, which emphasises how early experiences shape a person’s personality and behaviour, is one of his most well-known theories.
Famous psychologist Sigmund Freud developed a theory on how our minds function. He claimed that the id, ego, and superego are the three components of our minds.
- The Id: Inside of us, the id resembles a young child. Just as you might want to eat candy before supper when you’re hungry, it wants all it wants right away. Id is impulsive and primarily concerned with what is pleasurable at the time.
Example: Consider having a large bowl of ice cream in front of you and wanting to consume it all at once. Your inner voice is telling you to follow through because it feels good. It doesn’t give a damn about the repercussions or what people might think.
- The Ego: The ego might be compared to the mature side of our intellect. It makes an effort to strike a balance between the id’s impulses and what is reasonable and appropriate in the real world. It enables us to make decisions and deliberate before acting.
Example: the ego can say, “I know it’s delicious, but eating it all at once is not a good idea,” when you see that bowl of ice cream. I should keep some for later to avoid becoming sick and ruining my meal.
- The Superego: Comparable to our conscience, the superego. It is the portion of us that determines good and bad in accordance with the laws and morals we are taught by society and our parents. It expects us to be flawless, and follow the rules.
Example: “Eating too much ice cream is not healthy, and it’s not what I should do,” the superego would assert. I should follow their advice and consume food in moderation.
Freud also discussed the various stages of growth that occur as we age. He asserted that our personality and behaviour as adults might be influenced by the experiences we had as children.
Consider a child who did not receive adequate affection and care from their parents when they were young. Because they didn’t learn to trust and connect with others throughout that stage of development, they may find it difficult to form strong bonds with people as adults or to trust them.
Freud also claimed that our minds include elements like memories or hidden desires of which we are unaware. Even if we are unaware of it, these unconsciously held beliefs can have an impact on how we feel and behave.
Consider a person who is afraid of dogs but has no idea why. Freud would assert that even though they cannot recall the event, there may be a concealed memory or experience from their past that contributed to their present-day terror.
In conclusion, Freud’s theory teaches us that our minds are made up of several components that affect the way we think and act. Our personalities and emotions might be shaped by the events of our early years and our repressed ideas. Understanding these mental processes can improve our understanding of who we are as people and the reasons behind our actions.
In particular, Freud felt that our feelings and views regarding sexuality are moulded by the experiences we have as children. This is especially true when it comes to personality and behaviour. According to him, we go through various stages of development, with each stage concentrating on a new area of our bodies that gives us pleasure. These phases are known as the psychosexual phases.
Using examples, let’s walk through each stage:
- The oral stage, which lasts from 0 to 18 months, is all about the mouth. Babies enjoy sucking, biting, and putting things in their mouths. A newborn may acquire oral fixations if they are not fed enough or are weaned off breastfeeding too soon. Adulthood oral fixations might take the form of excessive eating or smoking.
- 2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years): The anus is now the main topic of discussion. Controlling their bowel movements gives toddlers joy. An anal-retentive mentality, in which a person becomes excessively organised and neat, can result from parents being too severe during potty training. However, being too liberal during potty training can result in an anal-expulsive personality, which is characterised by a lack of organisation and organisational skills.
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years): At this point, attention shifts to the genitalia. Children get interested in their bodies and learn that boys and girls have different bodies. Freud suggested the Electra complex for girls and the Oedipus complex for boys at this point. For instance, a youngster might grow to have deep affection for his mother and regard his father as a rival for her love. By identifying with the same-sex parent, the child is able to overcome this conflict and internalises their beliefs and behaviours.
- Latency Stage (6 years old to puberty): Sexual desires are dormant at this age, and kids instead concentrate on their studies and friendships. There are no significant conflicts at the moment.
- 5. Genital Stage (adolescence-adulthood): Last but not least, we come to the genital stage, where sexual desires reappear. Teenagers experience a maturing feeling of sexuality during puberty and grow more interested in romantic relationships.
Freud also discussed defence mechanisms, or the ways our minds shield us from worry and unsettling thoughts. For instance, if someone is anxious about public speaking, they could unwittingly resort to a defence mechanism like rationalisation (“I didn’t want to speak in front of those people anyway; it’s not a big deal”).
Despite the fact that Freud’s theory has been contested and criticised over time, it has had a profound impact on psychology and how we see human behaviour. Although not all of what he said is still accepted, his concepts have influenced how we view therapy, the unconscious mind, and personality.
Erikson’s theory
Developmental psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994) put up a thorough theory of psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory emphasises the relevance of social and cultural elements in influencing an individual’s development throughout their lifespan, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual stages. According to Erikson’s theory, there are eight stages, each of which is marked by a distinct psychological crises that people must overcome in order to engage in healthy growth. These stages, which range from infancy to old age, cover a variety of aspects of identity development and human maturation.
Trust vs. mistrust (infancy, 0–1 year):
Infants develop a trust or mistrust for their carers at this time depending on how consistently their demands are addressed. Infants gain trust when their carers are reliable and caring to them. The infant may grow to distrust carers if they are careless or erratic, on the other side. When a newborn’s pleas for food, comfort, or attention are repeatedly met with warmth and care, for instance, the baby is more likely to come to trust the outside world.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years)
Toddlers start to explore their independence and gain a sense of autonomy. They desire independence in everything they do. The child develops a sense of autonomy if their parents or other carers encourage them in their endeavours and offer a secure atmosphere for exploration. However, if parents are extremely demanding or judgmental, the youngster may experience shame and self-doubt. For instance, a youngster who attempts to dress themselves and is given support and encouragement, even when they make mistakes, develops a sense of autonomy.
- Initiative vs. Guilt (for preschoolers aged 3-6):
Children in this stage become more independent and take the lead in play and social situations. They play imaginatively and investigate their surroundings. The youngster gains purpose and confidence if their parents and teachers support their curiosity and initiative. However, if a child’s efforts are consistently received with criticism or punishment, they could start to feel guilty and be less willing to take chances. Children gain a sense of initiative, for instance, when they are encouraged for their inventiveness when they come up with a novel game.
- Industries vs. Inferiorities (6–11 years of age for school)
Children start their official education at this age, and peer comparisons become increasingly significant. In a variety of pursuits, including sports and academics, they aim to become proficient. If kids are commended and encouraged for their achievements, they grow to feel motivated and successful. But they could start to feel inferior if they receive unrelenting criticism or believe they fall short of expectations. For instance, a youngster gains a sense of industry when they put a lot of effort into a school project and are praised for it.
- 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12–18 years): Adolescents investigate their identities in an effort to comprehend who they are and how they fit into society. They might experiment with several identities and roles. The formation of a solid sense of identity results from traversing this stage successfully. However, individuals may experience role confusion or identity crisis if they are unable to establish a distinct identity or feel under pressure to live up to others’ expectations. An adolescent can establish a sense of identity by, for instance, exploring various interests, hobbies, and relationships while being given the freedom to do so without being judged.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18–40 Years): Young adults place a strong emphasis on developing close connections with others and developing intimate relationships. The capacity to establish wholesome, personal connections results from the successful conclusion of this phase. People may feel alone if they find it difficult to make meaningful connections or dread showing their emotions. For instance, a young adult experiences intimacy when they are open to emotional closeness and have gained confidence in developing personal relationships.
- “Generosity vs. Stagnation” (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 Years): People in this age group concentrate on making a positive difference in their communities, at work, and as parents and carers. People who have a sense of generativity and satisfaction in their contributions grow personally and are fulfilled. However, individuals may feel stagnant if they feel unproductive or unmoving in their jobs. For instance, a middle-aged individual experiences generativity when they find purpose and fulfilment in mentoring others or giving back to the society.
- Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ Years):
People consider their lives and accomplishments when they approach late adulthood. A sense of integrity and acceptance of one’s life’s journey result from successfully completing this stage. Integrity is often experienced by people who are content with their life’s journey, feel wise and accepting of themselves, and have a feeling of wisdom. On the other hand, those who lament squandered opportunities or feel hopeless about them could feel hopeless. Integrity, for instance, is felt by an elderly person who looks back on their life with a sense of success and wisdom.
Erikson’s theory emphasises the significance of each stage of life as well as the difficulties that people have while trying to develop a strong sense of self and a feeling of purpose. It highlights how social relationships, interactions, and cultural factors affect behaviour and personality. Erikson’s theory is still widely used in developmental psychology because it offers insightful explanations of the ongoing process of individual growth and self-discovery.
Kohlberg’s theory
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) created a theory of moral growth. Informed by the writings of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on how people come to grasp moral reasoning and how they make ethical decisions. A higher level of moral thinking and ethical awareness is represented by each of the six phases of moral development he outlined, which are broken down into three levels.
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Morality is currently predicated on avoiding punishment and pursuing rewards. To prevent undesirable outcomes, people prioritize their own self-interest and follow the rules. For instance, a child might not steal a cookie from the cookie jar if they are worried about their parents disciplining them.
Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation
At this point, people think about their own requirements and may choose moral actions based on what will benefit them personally. They are aware that other people have interests of their own, yet they view moral behaviour as a favour. An illustration of this stage is when someone only offers assistance if they anticipate receiving something in return, such as a future favour.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3: Positive Relationships with Others:
At this point, people are driven by a desire to win others’ approval and sustain healthy connections. To be considered as good and to win favour, they take into account the needs and feelings of others and abide by the law. To retain a positive reputation among their peers and family, a youngster might, for instance, abstain from smoking or drinking alcohol.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: People in this stage respect social order and follow the law to keep society stable. They are aware of how crucial it is to uphold the rule of law and keep institutions operating properly for the benefit of society. For instance, someone may consider that prompt tax payment advances the welfare of society.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality,
Stage 5: Individual Rights and the Social Contract:
At this point, people understand that laws and regulations can be altered if they are unjust or unfair. They take into account each person’s rights, societal standards, and the benefit of everyone in society. For instance, someone might demonstrate against a law or policy they feel is unfair or breaches their fundamental rights.
Stage 6: Universal principles
In the last step, people establish a solid moral code based on fundamental beliefs and ethical standards. Even if it means breaking the law, they believe in behaving in accordance with their strongly held moral views. For instance, someone might practise civil disobedience to protest injustice and be motivated by a feeling of moral obligation.
It’s crucial to remember that not everyone develops morally to the highest levels, and that development doesn’t always proceed in a straight line. According to Kohlberg’s view, social interactions, education, and life experiences all have an impact on moral growth, which is a progressive and continual process.
Understanding how people build their moral thinking and ethical decision-making processes has benefited from Kohlberg’s thesis. It has, however, also come under fire for its Western cultural slant and its emphasis on research that favours men. The theory is still useful for examining the complexity of moral development and how people make moral decisions throughout their lives, though.